FALLACIES: DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES

Hasty Generalization: The argument is based on insufficient or unrepresentative evidence. Unrepresentative means not typical.

Example: Suppose you were bitten by your neighbor’s poodle. You then state that all poodles are vicious.

Non Sequiter (“it does not follow”): The conclusion is not necessarily the logical result of the facts.

Example: The price of milk went up; dairy farmers must be making more money.

Begging the Question: Presenting as a truth something that ought to be proved by argument.

Example: There aren’t enough parking spaces on campus because there are too many cars.

Red Herring: Irrelevant points divert the reader’s attention from the main issue.

Example: A student claims he/she should not be penalized for handing in late work by saying that no one is perfect.

Name Calling - Argument ad hominem (“to the man”): Attacking the opponent’s character rather than the opponent’s argument.

Example: “Dr. Bloom can’t be a good marriage counselor because she’s been divorced twice.”

Appeal to Emotion -- Argument ad populum (“to the people”): Appealing to the readers’ emotional reactions to certain subjects.

Example: When one uses emotionally loaded words like “radical,” “extremist,” “freedom,” and “choice.”

Either/or: Stating that there are only two sides to the issue, one right and one wrong.

Example: You’re either with me or against me.

Bandwagon: Saying that something is true because everybody believes this or does it.

Example: “But Mom, everyone gets to stay out until 1:00 a.m.

Straw Man: Arguing against the weakest or most insignificant issue in an opponent’s argument.

Example: Vice President Gore would not make a good president because he appears stiff and lacks expression.

Faulty Analogy: Using a comparison of two things as a proof when those two things may be actually quite different from each other.

Example: If a person is old enough to legally drive a car, then that person should be allowed to vote.

Quick Fix: The argument is based on catchy phrases and slogans.

Example: Most ads use a catchy phrase like, “Join the Pepsi generation.”

Post hoc fallacy: This error in logic results from mistaking a time connection between two events for a causal relationship.

Example: Last month statistics show a record amount of pizza was consumed in the U.S. This month unemployment went down one whole percent. Therefore, eating pizza must result in more jobs.

Oversimplification: An argument gives one simple cause to explain a result or effect.

Example: A politician may say that we can cure most of our social problems if we can just control drug traffic.

Composition and Division: The error is to conclude that a part of something has the same characteristics as the entire group or thing. (Composition) Conversely, it is an error to conclude that the whole of something has the same characteristic as a part. (Division)

Example: The soldiers of the 33rd Infantry Division were among the most decorated in World War II; Sgt. Schultz was a member of that unit and must have earned many medals and commendations.

Two Wrongs Make a Right: Because someone has committed a wrong action does not make another wrong act acceptable.

Example: Yesterday there were three students tardy for class; why should it matter if I’m late for class today.

Contrary to Fact Hypothesis: Stating with a good degree of certainty the results of events that might have occurred but did not.

Example: “If she only hadn’t been married at such an early age, she’d be much happier now.”

Past Belief: The reason a person accepts a statement as true is that the statement has been believed in the past.

Example: The electoral college is a good system for choosing a president because we’ve been using it for over 200 years.

False Authority: This fallacy occurs when an argument uses as support someone who has neither the knowledge nor the reliability to give evidence on an issue.

Example: “Dad, you should buy stock in XYZ company; my social studies teacher did.”

Misuse of Humor: Using humor to confuse an issue or turn attention away from the real issues in order to sway someone’s opinion.

Example: “We need new management; our present supervisor has been in semi-retirement for at least two years.”

Appeal to Pity: This fallacy appears when the speaker or writer tries to convince the listener/reader out of sympathy for a person. It is asking us to agree with a position because we feel sorry for someone.

Example: “Mom, can I stay out later than usual this weekend; I’ve been sick all week and deserve to have a later curfew.”

Appeal to Ignorance: Since no one has ever proved a claim, it must therefore be false.

Example: “No one has ever proved that cigarette smoking leads to drug abuse; then it must be false.”

Plain Folks: This fallacy is based on the desire of the speaker/writer to identify with ordinary people who take pride in their ordinariness.

Example: Vote for John Doe. He grew up on a farm like most of us and really understands the average farmer.

Snob Appeal: The writer/speaker tries to identify with an elite or select group.

Example: Many products are advertised as being very expensive, desirable, or top of the line to attract buyers who wish to associate themselves with an elite group. “Shop with the best, buy all your groceries at Food Mart.”

Exaggeration: The argument goes too far in its conclusions to include any possible exceptions. Also, the argument may claim far too many benefits than are justified by the evidence.

Example: “Everyone who takes the ABC Speed Reading course will improve reading rate by at least 100 percent.”

Incorrect Facts: Basing an argument on evidence that is simply untrue.

Example: “The Ancient Egyptians are given far too much credit. Those pyramids and other monuments were probably built by aliens who visited Earth long ago.”