Motivation - Lecture Notes

  1. Motivation
    1. Definition of motive: hypothetical state within an organism that propels it toward a goal
      1. Hypothetical: not seen/ measured directly. (Inferred)
    2. Needs = states of deprivation
      1. Physiological = oxygen, food, drink, pain, avoidance, temperature, elimination of waste 
      2. Psychological = achievement, power, self esteem, social approval, belonging.
        1. Differ from physiological
          1. Not necessarily states of deprivation
          2. May be learned (not innate)
    3. Give rise to drives
      1. The experience of drives is psychological
      2. Arouse us to action
      3. Incentives are objects, persons, or situation that is perceived as being capable of satisfying a need/ drive.
  2. Theories of motivation
    1. Biological
      1.  Instincts or fixed action pattern (FAP) or species-specific behaviors.
      2. In humans – reaction to pheromes
        1. Chemical secretions detected by other members of the same species that stimulate stereotypical behaviors
        2. Odorless chemicals
      3. Possibly detected through a "sixth sense" – vomeronasal organ (VNO)
        1. Located in the mucous lining of the nose
      4. During embryonic period, acts as a pathway for sex hormones into brain, 
        1. Aiding in sexual differentation
      5. Shrinks prior to birth; debate about whether it stops working 
      6. But if it does work – detect pheromones, communicate information about them to Hypothalamus, which might influence sexual response.
      7. No conclusive evidence of pheromones directly affecting behavior 
        1. But some studies with interesting findings: Increased sex vs. control group
    2. Drive Reduction Theory
      1. Organisms learn to engage in behaviors that have effect of reducing drives
      2. Primary drives vs. acquired drives 
      3. Attempt to maintain homeostasis = "steady state"
    3. Arousal Theory
      1. Seeking optimal level of excitement of arousal (general level of activity or motivation)
      2. Explains why some people engage in risky, high excitement behaviors
      3. Yerkes – Dodson law (pg. 317)
      4. Motivation is to achieve & maintain preferred levels of stimulation. Arousal
    4. Incentive theory
      1. Environmental factors, such as external stimuli, reinforcers, or rewards motivate our behaviors.
      2. Motivation produced by need for social attainment.
      3. Incentives: external (in environment) – pulling us to obtain them.
        1. (Grades, praise, money, college degrees)
        2. Eat dessert after being stuffed? Incentive: highly desirable food
        3. Buy more clothes? Incentive: stylish clothes
      4. Drives: internal – push us to reduce needs
      5. Overjustification effect: occurs when extrinsic rewards are provided for behavior that was previously intrinsically motivated – behavior decreases
      6. Incentive theory looks at the difference between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation
          1. Extrinsic: engaging in certain activities or behaviors that reduce biological needs or help obtain incentives or external rewards.
          2. Intrinsic: Engaging in certain behaviors because the behaviors themselves
            1. are personally rewarding or
            2. because engaging in these activities fulfills our beliefs or expectations. (Such as how boys and girls should act.)